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wants to do (Brown & Levinson, 1987: 65-66). Brown and Levinson (1987) listed a variety of acts that attack face, including threats, warnings, or-ders, offers, promises, expressions of strong nega-tive emotions such as anger and hatred, disap-proval, criticism, contempt, ridicule, accusations, and insults. A claim may have an especially strong context, including DEIXIS, SPEECH ACTS, and conveyed politeness (Brown & Levinson, 1987). Cognitive scientists are not interested in all aspects of language (their history for example). Four aspects though are of particular importance. One is how language is learnt (see LEARNING IN MAN & MACHINE). (Levinson: 102-3 ). It would be of particular interest to us to see what kind of communication will result when one or more than one of these maxims are violated. Before we turn to this question, we will examine the theory of face by Ervin Goffman in relation to the theory of politeness by Brown and Levinson. (1987) 2. Face and Politeness Brown and Levinson (1987), however, argue that preference is determined by face considerations. They suggest, for instance, that: ''agreement is preferred because disagreement is an FTA [face threatening act]; self-repair because correction by other may imply that self is misguided or incompetent''. (Brown and Levinson, 1987:38) Brown & Levinson (1987) divide politeness strategies into two types: positive and 2 negative politeness strategies. Positive politeness strategies are "approach-based", aiming to satisfy the addressee's wants and enhance his/her self-image. Brown and Levinson's theory of linguistic politeness first appeared in 1978, although Penelope Brown had already published an article entitled 'Women and politeness: a new perspective on language and society' in Review in Anthropology in 1976. according to brown and levinson (1987), positive face is "the positive consistent self-image or "personality" (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appre- ciated and approved of) claimed by interactants", whereas negative face is "the basic claim to territories, personal preserve, rights to non-distraction—i.e. to freedom of … られる。実際、Brown & Levinson（1987）においても、聞き手の自律性の侵害の程度が増した場合 に補償程度の大きい方略が使用されるのは、それらの方略が侵害の程度を減少する利益をもたらす という事実があるため、という記述がなされている。 Brown and Levinson (1987) treat speech acts as face threatening either to the speaker or to the hearer. All members of a society have 'face', or 'the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself, consisting in two related aspects: (a) negative face … [and] (b) positive face' (Brown and Levinson 1987: 61). Brown and Levinson base their theory on the acceptance of the two assumptions stated above, that is, everyone has both negative. 70. 4. A Japanese perspective. face and positive face, and both of these aspects of face are, at times, threatened by another (Brown & Levinson 1978: 63, and Faso ld 1990: Furthermore, Brown and Levinson in Watts (2003:90-91) provide ten strategies of negative politeness. According to Brown and Levinson in Cutting (2002:45), off-record is an indirect way of politeness. The utterances are not directly addressed to the hearers. Bonvillain (2003:127